The prophylactic action of antibiotics may be achieved by their immunomodulatory effects or by their neuroprotective effects. Evidence for the latter arises from animal models of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, traumatic brain injury, multiple sclerosis, Huntington’s disease, stroke, and Parkinson’s disease. Such neuroprotective effects may be mediated by the immunomodulatory effects of these drugs or by a direct regulation of different brain proteins. BMN673 customer reviews Interestingly, the present study found that ampicillin treatment to control rats led to increased TH levels in the PFC, and tended to increase TH level in the striatum and D1 and D2 levels in the PFC. Both the immunomodulatory and the neuroprotective effects of antibiotics may be achieved directly or by their effects on the GI microbiota, which is essential for the normal development and functioning of the host immune system, as well as brain development and function. Previous studies in animals have shown that introduction of specific bacteria or elimination of others can lead to behavioral and neural changes, including among others, changes in depressive- and anxiety-like behaviors and alterations in the production, release and metabolism of neurotransmitters and the expression of receptors. Interestingly, a recent study has demonstrated that introduction of the gram negative bacteria B. fragilis to a mice model of autism spectrum disorders ameliorated deficits in communicative, stereotypic, sensorimotor, and anxiety-like behaviors, including a reduction in marble burying. Although the present study does not reveal the mechanism by which ampicillin treatment achieved its beneficial effects, some insight into the relations between the neurochemical and behavioral effects of ampicillin treatment may be gained from comparing the pattern of these effects in GAS-exposed and in control rats. Specifically, there is an interesting parallel between the opposite effects of ampicillin on marble burying and on the level of D1 dopamine receptors and of TH in the PFC and striatum of GAS-exposed and control rats. This parallel may suggest that the increase in these neurochemical measures in GASexposed rats caused the increased marble burying, and their attenuation by ampicillin treatment led to the prevention of the behavioral change. Indeed, previous studies have found that manipulations leading to a reduction in dopamine levels in the PFC or striatum led to reduced marble burying, although other studies found the opposite effect. Of the immunological and neurochemical measures that were taken in the present study, IgG deposits in the thalamus are the only one which parallels the pattern of behavioral deficits in the food manipulation task. In humans, damage to the thalamus caused by stroke can lead to choreic movements and thalamic structural and functional alterations are correlated with motor symptoms in disorders such as SC, TS, Huntington’s disease, Parkinson’s disease and schizophrenia. In animals, different manipulations that disrupt thalamic functioning lead to motor alterations such as reduced grip strength, involuntary clasping movement and impairments in limb coordination and balance.